Opportunity Cost and Thinking at the Margin

Economists are always looking at the impact a decision has on all surrounding options. The term opportunity cost is simply a way of looking at what is being sacrificed in the decision making process. To put it plainly, when something is chosen, then something is refused. The item or service that is forgone is the opportunity cost. To apply this concept we will need to use some examples.

When you enter a fast food restaurant, you are presented with a variety of options. Since you are hungry you choose to order food. On the menu are Tacos, Burritos, Nachos, and Sodas. You only have enough money for three items. Since you do not enjoy the aroma of cheese you avoid the nachos; and since you know that you'll be thirsty you choose the soda. So you order one taco, one burrito, and one soda. You had the opportunity to order nachos but you could not afford the cost. The nachos then become the opportunity cost.

Opportunity cost is found in decisions everyday. Let us say that you have three options to get to school. You can walk, ride a bicycle, or ride a bus. If you were to prioritize these options first to third, then the second most desirable option is the opportunity cost. You need to get to school on time so walking is third. It is a little chilly outside so the bicycle option is second. Thus, your first option is to take the bus. By taking the bus your refused the second option - the bicycle. In this scenario, the opportunity cost is the bicycle.

If we were to add several more options to our scenarios above, we could then apply the concept of thinking at the margin. If the fast food restaurant had small, medium, large, and extra large varieties on all food and drinks, then you may consider decreasing or increasing one size option so as to similarly increase or decrease the size of another option. Thinking at the margin occurs when a choice is slightly modified by a factor of one to affect a change on the other possible options. If your boss sent you home one hour early to avoid paying you additional money, then he or she is thinking at the margin by reducing their labor cost by one unit of time.

Factors of Production

Factors of production are the resources used to provide a service or good to market. Typically, speaking these three factors are land, labor, and capital. Without the factors of production it is not possible for an entrepreneur, also know as a businessperson, to complete business related activities. All businesses need the factors of production.

Land is the first factor of production. To make a successful business it is required that land is secured for several reasons. First, land is needed to locate your business operations. More importantly, land is needed to develop natural resources. It is impossible for the farmer to grow apples without land; whereas it is similarly impossible for the barber to service his or her customers without a shop. Land is the first necessity required to satisfy the factors for production.

Labor is work. All business ventures require some type of labor to produce goods or services. To define labor in other words, it is the effort put forth by a worker for which that employee gets paid. For example, the farmer works his fields to produce an increased yield of apples. The barber uses his or her effort to cut the customers' hair. All effort used to produce goods or services is called labor.

Businesses require the use of capital. Most often the term capital relates to money for investment, but in the pure economics sense, capital is also the machinery used to produce goods or services. Money can be used to purchase items to streamline business operations. Furthermore, machinery already owned is valuable and similarly considered capital. The farmer needs money capital to buy seeds and the farmer needs machinery capital to plow the fields. Both examples used here are capital.

There are two types of capital used in an economic system. First, economists use the term physical capital to describe machines or other objects created by humans to increase production. On the other hand, economists will refer to another type of capital called human capital. Human resources are an integral part of the economic system. Some humans are inexperienced while others have extensive educational backgrounds. Entrepreneurs have to make economic decisions about their labor force and consider the value of their human capital. To put it simply, human capital describes the levels of experience, education, intuition, and et cetera in relation to a given labor force. Typically speaking, the more valuable you are as human capital, the more money you are paid.

Introduction to Economics

People make decisions about things in their lives everyday. In its most simplistic form, these decisions, and the study of their relating trends, are the basis for the economics academic discipline. Economics seeks to develop an understanding of information relating to these decisions on many levels. Your decision to eat an apple for lunch, a corporate decision to invest billions of dollars, and a government decision to reduce tax costs are all examples of economics. Or in other words, economics studies the decisions that are made in relation to resources in our everyday lives.

The study of economics begins with the terms scarcity and choice. Because not everything is available to everyone all of the time, we have to make decisions and prioritize our resources. Scarcity is the concept that there is a limited amount of an item that is sought after by an unlimited amount of want. To say it another way, there is a limit to how many apples you can buy, carry, and eat at lunch. Like all goods and services, apples become scarce and choices have to be made.

Goods and services are the two basic components in the economic system. Goods are tangible items that are produced, sold, transported, consumed, or saved. The apple is a good. On the other hand, there are services. Services are activities performed by others for trade. For example, an auto mechanic knows how to fix cars. You do not know how to fix cars. As a result, you trade your money for the auto mechanics service. A service is not a product or a tangible item that you purchase and possess. The service is an activity that is performed that you could not otherwise perform on your own.

By studying how goods, services, money and other factors of production operate, economists can make predictions about peoples' behavior. These predictions are utilized to make investments, decisions about pricing, changes to supply, and many other economic strategies. The most successful entrepreneurs have a solid understanding of the economics discipline.

Earliest Humans of the Western Hemisphere

Christopher Columbus may have been the first European to sail across the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, but he was not the first to discover the Americas. Human migration dates back to nearly 200,000 years ago. At approximately 15,000 years ago Humans crossed a land bridge called Beringia from Asia to Alaska. As a result, human migration and settlement occurred across both North America and South America 1,000's of years before the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria landed at Hispaniola in the Gulf of Mexico (Columbus). Humans chased game across the exposed land that is today's Bering Strait. Because the Earth was much cooler 15,000 years ago, an increased amount of seawater was frozen into the polar ice caps. The consequence was that areas of land were exposed that today are under water.

The first humans chased wild game across Beringia for survival. Eventually these humans migrated into the lower latitudes of Canada and into the present day United States. After several millennia, these humans had crossed Panama and spread across the South American continent. By the time of European contact humans had spread across all corners of the western hemisphere. Early on these humans were labeled "Indians," but today we refer to peoples with this ancestry as Native Americans.

Native Americans, as mentioned above, existed all across the Americas. In Canada and the United States there were hundreds, possibly thousands of differing tribes. These Native Americans carved out different ecological niches to survive. For example, some Native Americas relied on hunting buffalo across the plains; whereas others used agricultural techniques to sow corn. In addition, Native Americans that settled in present-day Mexico and the Andes Mountains of South America built cities that rivaled European cities. One example is the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan. The Inca, Maya, Pueblo, Kiowa, Iroquois, Cherokee, Pawnee, Yokut, Seminole, Eskimo, and many other tribes already inhabited the Americas for thousands of years prior to the voyage of Christopher Columbus.

Introduction to United States Geography

The events which have shaped the history of the United States were often times affected by the geography of this nation. Both political and physical regions of the United States had an impact on eras such as the Revolutionary War, the Civil War, the Mexican-American War, the Indian Wars, the Spanish-American War, the Old West, and other notable historical time periods. Prior to studying the historical events surrounding the United States it is important to develop an understanding of basic geographical locations. 

1. California        26. Kentucky

2. Oregon           27. Illinois

3. Washington    28. Wisconsin

4. Idaho              29. Michigan

5. Nevada          30. Ohio

6. Arizona          31. Indiana

7. Utah               32. West Virginia

8. Montana         33. Pennsylvania

9. Wyoming        34. New York

10. Colorado      35. Vermont

11.New Mexico  36. New Hampshire

12. Texas           37. Maine

13. Oklahoma     38. Massachusetts

14. Kansas         39. Rhode Island

15. Nebraska      40. Connecticut

16. South Dakota     41. New Jersey 

17. North Dakota     42. Delaware

18. Minnesota          43. Maryland

19. Iowa                   44. Virginia

20. Missouri             45. North Carolina

21. Arkansas           46. South Carolina

22. Louisiana           47. Georgia

23. Mississippi        48. Florida

24. Alabama            49. Alaska

25. Tennessee         50. Hawaii

White - Regions

1. San Joaquin Valley

2. Great Basin

3. Great Plains

4. Coastal Plains

Red - Mountains

1. Coastal Range

2. Sierra Nevada

3. Cascades

4. Rocky

5. Appalachian

Yellow - Bodies of H20

1. San Francisco Bay

2. Lake Tahoe

3. Great Salt Lake

4. Lake Superior

5. Lake Michigan

6. Lake Huron

7. Lake Erie

8. Lake Ontario

9. Chesapeake Bay

10. Gulf of Mexico

Turquoise - Rivers

1. Mississippi

2. Ohio

3. Missouri

4. Colorado

Judicial Branch

The Judicial Branch of the United States Government is responsible for comparing congressional and state legislation to the United States Constitution. All laws in the United States must fall within the limits set by the Constitution. If legislation is held to violate a constitutional right, then the legislation is struck down as unconstitutional. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in the United States. As a result, issues which make the Supreme Court are usually landmark and historical in nature. Many decisions by the Supreme Court affect everyday lives of Americans.

The Supreme Court consists of 9 justices. Each justice is appointed to the Supreme Court by the President. Supreme Court Justices are tenured for life once their appointment has been affirmed. Decisions made by the Supreme Court can be unanimous or as close as a 5-4 split. Once the Supreme Court is finished weighing legal issues it then gives its decision. Often times there are opinions written by the justices on both sides of the issue.

Justices of the Supreme Court 2012

The Supreme Court is designed to interpret the legal intentions of the framers of the Constitution. When issues arise that are unclear within the written legalities of Constitution, the Supreme Court will agree to hear arguments prior to making its decision. Once the decision has been made a legal precedent has been set. A legal precedent is a decision that can be referred to in future legal disputes. Once a precedent has been set, most often courts will adhere to the rationale of the precedent. Occasionally, a legal precedent, such as "separate but equal," will be overturned.

See the post titled "Example Landmark Supreme Court Cases."

Executive Branch

The Executive Branch of the United States Government is tasked with enforcing federal law. This branch is led by a president, who is elected by citizens of the United States. The president is supported by a vice president, cabinet members, and other heads of departments. All departments, such as the Department of State, Department of Justice (F.B.I.), Department of Homeland Security, Department of Education, and et cetera are all subject to the authority of the President of the United States. These departments help the president enforce all federal law passed by congress.

The President of the United States is elected every four years. Presidents are only allowed to serve two terms for a total of 8 years. If a vice president assumes the presidency more than half way through a term, then he or she is eligible for a total of 10 years. Presidents must be natural born citizens in the United States. Furthermore, presidents must be a minimum of 35 years of age. Finally, presidents must have been a resident in the United States for at least the past 14 years.

Current President of the United States Barack Obama

The President of the United States is given certain powers to enforce law. Although, Congress is given the right to declare war, the President is the commander-in-chief of all military agencies. As commander-in-chief of the military, the President wields enormous power. For example, the President is in command of the Central Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, The United States Navy, Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, and Marine Corps, and many other organizations. With the advent of the National Security clause, the President may command any of his supporting departments to engage in any activity, even if the activity is forbidden by law (Special operations of a clandestine nature is an example of how the President uses the National Security clause to surpass legal restrictions). The President is also given the authority to make appointments to positions such as the Supreme Court and other departments. As a result, the President is often referred to as the most powerful human on Earth. In one sense this accurate; but when considering that the peoples' representatives in congress have the power to impeach the president, one must not forget that the office of the presidency belongs to the people and that he or she is your public employee.

Legislative Branch

The Legislative Branch of the United States Government is tasked with creating, amending, and abolishing law. This branch has no authority to enforce law or interpret law. It does however play a significant role in the everyday lives of Americans, and to another extent, those affected by our laws overseas. Article I of the United States Constitution outlines procedures and requirements for the Legislative Branch.

The Legislative Branch consists of two houses. Founding fathers of the United States Government felt that two levels of representation were needed to avoid factionalism and to ensure a more accurate reflection of the peoples' will. As a result, a House of Representatives was created to cover smaller areas and populations; whereas the Senate was created to represent entire States. For a law to take effect it must be passed by both the House of Representatives, the Senate, and signed by the President. The President can veto a law but the Senate and House of Representatives may override the Presidential Veto with a 2/3 majority vote. If the Congress adjourns its session before the ten days allotted for the President's signature, the bill does not become a law. This scenario is called a pocket veto.

The House of Representatives is currently staffed with 435 elected officials to represent the people of various districts across the United States. Territories of the United States are allowed to be represented by non-voting members, but are still subject to legislation from Congress. Constituents, or citizens represented by an elected leader, have the right to petition their representative for legislative action. For example, people routinely write letters to their local congress person. Issues are raised with letters, in the media, and nowadays online. If a representative fails to meet the needs of its constituents, then the people have the right to replace that representative through the ballot box.

Representatives must be at a minimum of 25 years of age. Second, members must also have been a citizen of the United States for at least 7 years. Finally, Representatives must also live in the state that they represent - usually they live in the district they represent although not required by law. Representatives serve 2 year terms before another election.

Senators, on the other hand must be at least 30 years of age to be elected to congress. Second, senators must have been a citizen of the United States for at least 9 years. Finally, senators must similarly be a resident in the state which they represent. One third (1/3) of the seats are up for election every 2 years, making a senator's term a total of 6 years.

The Legislative Branch is the government organization responsible for law. Law can be created, amended, and abolished. The House of Representatives is given the power to impeach presidents and raise revenue. The Senate has the options to certify treaties, confirm judge appointments, and affirm military leaders. These powers are restricted to the legislature only. The Executive and Judicial branch can neither create, amend, or abolish law.

Modern Political Parties in the United States

There are two major political parties in the United States today. Although the Constitution makes no mention on political organization, there typically have been two major competing parties throughout much of the history of the United States. In fact, the political parties in the United States are a representation on two competing views about the future of government. One party is conservative; whereas the other party is liberal. Most often people toss these terms around loosely and have no understanding of the meaning. There is no absolute right or wrong position with either party. The best approach is to gain a solid understanding of the issues and decide for yourself which party best represents your values. So in an effort to become more politically aware let's spend some time dissecting the meaning of these terms and categorizing issues relating to each parties' position.

Democrats Donkeys; Republicans Elephants

The term liberal is used to define the Democratic Party. Typically speaking the term liberal relates to the amount of progressive action the government is allowed to take. For example, a liberal would normally support marriage of homosexuals since it is a progressive social issue that is relatively new to the world of American politics. The liberal attitude is that which is open to government reform, change, and other progressive policies.

The term conservative is used to describe the Republican Party. Most often the use of the term conservative can be defined as one who does not agree with the government's efforts to make quick and hasty reforms. The example of homosexual marriage would be one that most Republicans disagree with since it is a rapid departure from common social attitudes from the past.

The terms liberal and conservative are also applied to fiscal policy. Liberal politicians will typically agree to spend more and allow government to grow. On the other hand, conservative politicians usually spend less and decrease the role of government in everyday life. The major factor affecting most Americans in this debate is revenue, or better known as taxes. The best way to demonstrate this point is ask these questions: Are you willing to increase taxes to allow the government to expand its services (Yes = Liberal; No = Conservative)? Or do you feel that taxes should be lowered which will decrease the roll of everyday government services (Yes = Conservative; No = Liberal)?

Again, there is no absolute right or wrong position, just competing views about how to proceed. Issues are discussed in the media or raised with representatives. The final say rests with the people. On election day people go to the ballot box and cast their votes. Often times people vote along party lines giving the parties strength and influence. The result is a political spectrum from extreme liberal to moderate to extreme conservative. Take a look at the categorization of basic political issues in the United States and see where it is you stand.

United States Bill of Rights

The United States Bill of Rights are the first 10 basic laws of the United States. The creation of U.S. Bill of Rights was most influenced by James Madison's Federalist Paper No. 10. In the his work, Madison argued that a pure democracy leaves majority faction in a position to abuse the minority classes. As a consequence, the founding fathers decided to adopt the Bill of Rights as the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Originally, the Bill of Rights was designed to protect basic freedoms for white, property owning, male citizens, but today these protections are extended to all members of the nation without exception.


United States Constitution Bill of Rights Paraphrased
1st Amendment - protects the freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the freedom to assembly.

2nd Amendment - protects the right to bear arms.

3rd Amendment - protects against the forced quartering (housing) of soldiers.

4th Amendment - protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.

5th Amendment - protects legal liberties such as the right to a grand jury, the right to due process, the right to avoid self-incrimination, and the right to avoid double jeopardy.

6th Amendment - protects the right to a fair and speedy trial, protects the right to face accuser, protects the right to retain an attorney.  

7th Amendment - protects the right to trial by jury.

8th Amendment - protects against cruel and unusual punishment.

9th Amendment - protects against using unwritten   rights as an avenue to abuse citizens.

10th Amendment - states rights; rights that are not outlined in the Constitution are given to the states and people.

Enlightenment Political Philosophers

After the Dark Ages of Medieval Europe, new discoveries were being made in a range of differing disciplines. Art, science, math, technology, finance and other areas of study were beginning to make advancements. Political science was not the exception. Thinkers from this era contributed largely to the framework in which we govern ourselves today. These modern political philosophers distributed their ideas throughout Europe, and later, the British North American Thirteen Colonies. As a result, people became educated about better courses of action in relation to government. Eventually, these modern political ideologies influenced revolutions, both peaceful and violent, and lay the basis for the governments found throughout the western world today.

Baron de Montesquieu was a French political philosopher that advocated a government system that separated its powers. Since France had some negative experiences with absolute monarchs during its past, Montesquieu's views on government were widely accepted. French citizens did not have the opportunity to redress grievances, participate in legislative decision making, and were all but ignored by its rulers. Consequently, the idea of separating power took root and flourished among the educated classes of French citizens.

Montesquieu's ideas did not remain in France. His works were translated and were highly popular among statesmen in the British North American Thirteen Colonies. The founding members of the United States Constitution used Montesquieu's views to create a government that could not abuse its citizens. By separating three distinct governmental powers, the United States has had unprecedented success with its governmental organization. The three main bodies of government are the legislative, executive and judicial. Each branch of the government serves as a check and balance against the others, thus eliminating the possibility for a usurpation of power or abuse of the citizens.


John Locke was an Englishman who similarly produced works about the purpose and structure of government. Locke argues in his Two Treatises on Government that the sole purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of citizens. According to Locke, people are endowed  with three natural rights. These rights are life, liberty, and property. As a citizen of the United States the government ensures our right to life. It is illegal to take another person's life because it is their natural right to exist. In addition, citizens are prevented from imprisoning others without a just cause. The government protects your natural right to liberty within the scope of the law. Finally, Locke argues that the government should protect our natural right to accumulate property (Though Jefferson would redefine this as "pursuit of happiness" in the Declaration of Independence to avoid the issue of regarding African-American slaves as property). Thus, it is a natural right for citizens to earn and toil to accumulate wealth and happiness. These natural rights are the basis for which the United States was formed in opposition to the English Constitutional Monarchy.


Jean-Jacques Rousseau was another Frenchmen who produced works relating to government. According to Rousseau, there existed a social contract which existed between governments and its citizens. Since governments are instituted among people, to serve the people, then Rousseau's belief was that abuse of governmental power was a nullification of the social contract. In other words, if a government was abusive of its citizens, then its half of the contract was void, hence making the authority of that government non-existent. Governments should exist based solely on the consent of the governed.






William Blackstone wrote a treatise titled Commentaries on the Laws of England. His work was similarly influential in political discourse of the time. In his treatise, Blackstone argues that laws should be clearly codified and rational so that the application of law is equal and just. During his time period, laws in England, and around the world for that matter, were routinely circumvented to benefit the advantaged or wealthy. The result of this study gave the founding fathers of the United States Constitution the rationale for writing laws so that the meaning and application is just and fair to all members of the citizenry.

Since all of the previously discussed political authors advocated a form of just democratic rule in one form or another, there is something to be said about the dangers of a purely democratic society. James Madison, one of the founding fathers of the United States Constitution, wrote Federalist Paper No. 10 in an effort to demonstrate the difficulties associated with a democratic country without legal protections. In his work, Madison discusses the risk of factionalism. According to Madison factionalism occurs when majority groups legally inflict abuse upon minorities through the use of the vote and other democratic means. Madison's views helped the founding fathers pave the way for the creation of a "Bill of Rights" that protected minority rights from factionalism and abuse of power by a majority rule.

Ancient Political Philosophers

Since the earliest days of humanity people have been organizing and making collective decisions about how to govern the day to day activities of the tribe, city, or nation. Government is the study of how humans use their collective efforts to promote general welfare for their communities. One of the earliest examples of government comes from Hammurabi, a ruler from Ancient Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's Code was a series of laws that were required to be followed in Ancient Mesopotamia almost 4,000 years ago. The saying, "An eye for an eye," is a direct translation from Hammurabi's Code. This law was the basis for how criminal conduct would be handled in the lands of Ancient Mesopotamia.

Hammurabi's Code on Stone Tablet 

Later, Ancient Greek philosophers took the idea of government and political science to new levels. The Ancient Greeks spent countless hours studying and discussing details related to government. As a result, much of the world of government today finds its inspiration from philosophers from Ancient Greece and other later civilizations.

Eventually, European political philosophers emerged after the Renaissance. With the advent of the printing press, ideas about politics were able to be quickly distributed. New ideas were formed and caused old systems of government to be modified or violently overthrown. The basis for the United States Constitution comes from the teachings of ancient philosophers, as well as modern thinkers too.






"Man is by nature a political animal." - Aristotle Politics

The Thinker or Philosopher

Humans naturally communicate with one another. When we consider that we have the ability to discuss, agree, and disagree, humans have an advantage over much of the natural world. Early caves people could not individually fend off hungry Saber-Toothed Tigers. Yet, as a collective political unit the early caves people were much better equipped to proceed on a unified course of action to fight their main predator - the Saber-Toothed Tiger. For example, one person would gather sticks to make spears; whereas another person would prepare the fire. Other persons were tasked with making rock tools to sharpen spears. And finally, the group became prepared to defend itself as a unit. Humans by nature cooperate as a means to a common goal. Consider the opposite of cooperative political action: Cats. Cats naturally are individualistic. Never has a group of Cats gathered around a fire and discussed the best course of action with which to proceed. Cats behave as individuals and thus are not political. "Man is by nature a political animal." -Aristotle Politics.



"Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men... philosophize... cities will have no rest from evils... nor, I think, will the human race." Plato - Republic 

Plato

Humans routinely have rulers to lead communities. Throughout history there are thousands of examples of incompetent and successful rulers. Adept and inadequate rulers range from Kings of vast empires to local mayors in small towns. For whatever the reason, people give others the authority to rule. Since it is apparent that there will be those trusted with authority, people have studied that which makes a ruler most likely to be successful. Approximately 2,400 years ago Plato made the extraordinary claim that rulers should be philosophers or thinking men. To put it in other words, the most successful governments will have the wise and educated as their rulers. If you had to select a leader would you prefer the village idiot or local scholar?

Example Landmark Supreme Court Cases

Civil Rights:
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) - held that people of African decent were slaves and thus are not protected by the Constitution. Overruled by the 14th Amendment Citizenship Clause, "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States..."

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) - held that states had the right to create "seperate but equal" facilities for persons of African descent.

Brown v. The Board of Education (1954) - held that Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional. States were no longer allowed to segregate students based on race.

Abortion:
Roe v. Wade (1973) - held that the Constitution guarantees a woman's right to privacy in relation to their bodies. Abortion was legalized.

Criminal Rights:
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - held that states must pay for an attorney for any person accused of criminal misconduct in trial proceedings.

Escobedo v. Illinois (1963) - held that persons suspected of criminal misconduct have the right to an attorney in an interrogation.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) - held that any person interrogated must be made fully aware of their right to an attorney and their right to remain silent.

Brown v. Mississippi (1936) - held that a criminal confession is not valid if obtained through the use of violence.

Judicial Review:
Marbury v. Madison (1803) - held that the Judiciary has the right to interpret legislation.

Intelligent Design:
Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (2005) - held that teaching intelligent design in public schools is a violation of the 1st amendment's freedom of religion clause, and thus illegal.

The Soviet Union

The Russian Revolution occurred during World War 1 in 1917. When the Russians were fighting the Central Powers in Europe, the home front was disintegrating. While fighting the war, the Russian leadership consisted of a Tsar that controlled all of the power and wealth in the country. As a result, there were large groups of Russians that were unhappy with the leadership. V.I. Lenin, the main leader of the opposition to the Tsar, would lead a successful revolution and create the first Communist country based upon the teachings of Karl Marx. The Soviet Union would later become a world super power, even challenging the United States in technology and arms. By 1990 the Soviet Union collapsed, leaving the remaining world super power, the United States, to move forward and make the planet safe for democracy and global business.

The Romanov Family w Tsar Nicholas II

They were all executed.

V.I. Lenin Leader of the Russian Communist Revolution

U.S.S.R. - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Although short lived as a government (1917-1990), the Soviet Union had some notable historical accomplishments worthy of mention. First, the Soviet Union created the first functioning Communist country where the government attempted to create a society where its citizens own the means to production, thus eliminating economic inequality. Or in other words, the Communist government eliminated private property and forced all citizens to cooperate for the benefit of the nation. Second, the Soviet Union spilled more blood in World War 2 than any other country to defeat Hitler and Nazi Germany. In 1942, Hitler's armies entered the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa to acquire land for the Germans. The Soviet leader, Stalin at this time, was able to rally the Russians and others to stop the Nazi onslaught. (Making the United States and Soviet Union temporary allies). Next, the Soviet Union had put both the first satellite (Sputnik) in space along with the first man (Yuri Gagarin) in space. Finally, the Soviet Union competed with the United States throughout the Cold War. On several occasions the United States and the Soviet Union nearly came to global thermonuclear war. During the 1980's United States President Ronald Reagan spoke his famous words, "Mr. Gorbachev, Bring down this wall." The quote echoed the struggle of the people under the Communist system. Thankfully, cooler heads prevailed and the Soviet Union peacefully collapsed in 1990, thus creating several new countries and ending the Cold War.

Soviet Union Communist Government

Nazi Invasion of Soviet Union - Operation Barbarossa

Stalin v. Hitler (World War 2)

Battle of Stalingrad - Soviet Union Victory

 Soviet Union Flag Over Berlin, Germany

Sputnik - First Satellite in Space - U.S.S.R.

Yuri Gagarin - First Human in Space - U.S.S.R.

Berlin Wall and the Collapse of European and Russian Communism

"Mr. Gorbachev, Bring Down This Wall!" - Ronald Reagan

The Consequences of a Hot War Avoided